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.\" $Id: ncg.doc,v 1.11 1994/06/24 10:02:07 ceriel Exp $
.RP
.ND
.TL
The table driven code generator
.br
from the
.br
Amsterdam Compiler Kit
.br
Second Revised Edition
.AU
Hans van Staveren
.AI
Dept. of Mathematics and Computer Science
Vrije Universiteit
Amsterdam, The Netherlands
.AB
The Amsterdam Compiler Kit is a collection of tools
designed to help automate the process of compiler building.
Part of it is a table driven code generator,
called
.I cg ,
and a program to check and translate machine description
tables called
.I cgg .
This document provides a description of the internal workings of 
.I cg ,
and a description of syntax and semantics of the driving table.
This is required reading for those wishing to write a new table.
.AE
.NH 1
Introduction
.PP
Part of the Amsterdam Compiler Kit is a code generator system consisting
of a code generator generator (\fIcgg\fP for short) and some machine
independent C code.
.I Cgg
reads a machine description table and creates two files,
tables.h and tables.c.
These are then used together with other C code to produce
a code generator for the machine at hand.
.PP
This in turn reads compact EM code and produces
assembly code.
The remainder of this document will first broadly describe
the working of the code generator,
then the machine table will be described after which
some light is shed onto
the internal workings of the code generator.
.PP
The reader is assumed to have at least a vague notion about the
semantics of the intermediary EM code.
Someone wishing to write a table for a new machine
should be thoroughly acquainted with EM code
and the assembly code of the machine at hand.
.NH 1
What has changed since version 1 ?
.PP
This section can be skipped by anyone not familiar with the first version.
It is not needed to understand the current version.
.PP
This paper describes the second version of the code generator system.
Although the code generator itself is for the main part unchanged,
the table format has been drastically redesigned and the opportunities
to make faulty tables are reduced.
The format is now aesthaticly more pleasing (according to \fIme\fP that is),
mainly because the previous version was designed for one line code rules,
which did not work out that way.
.PP
The `SCRATCH' property is now automatically generated by
.I cgg ,
.I erase
and
.I setcc
calls and their ilk are now no longer needed
(read: can no longer be forgotten)
and all this because the table now 
.I knows
what the machine instructions look like and what arguments they
destroy.
.PP
Checks are now made for register types, so it is no longer possible
to generate a `regind2' token with a floating point register as a base.
In general, if the instructions of the machine are correctly defined,
it is no longer possible to generate code that does not assemble,
which of course does not mean that it is not possible to generate
assembly code that does not do what was intended!
.PP
Checks are made now for missing moves, tests, coercions, etc.
There is a form of procedure call now to reduce table size:
it is no longer necessary to write the code for conditional
instructions six times.
.PP
The inreg() pseudo-function returns other results!!
.NH 1
Global overview of the workings of the code generator.
.PP
The code generator or
.I cg
tries to generate good code by simulating the stack
of the compiled program and delaying emission of code as long
as possible.
It also keeps track of register contents, which enables it to
eliminate redundant moves, and tries to eliminate redundant tests
by keeping information about condition code status,
if applicable for the machine.
.PP
.I Cg
maintains a `fake stack' containing `tokens' that are built
by executing the pseudo code contained in the code rules given
by the table writer.
One can think of the fake stack as a logical extension of the real
stack the compiled program will have when run.
Alternatively one can think of the real stack as an infinite extension
at the bottom of the fake stack.
Both ways, the concatenation of the real stack and the fake stack
will be the stack as it would have been on a real EM machine (see figure).
.TS
center;
cw(3.5c) cw(3c) cw(3.5c)
cw(3.5c) cw(3c) cw(3.5c)
|cw(3.5c)| cw(3c) |cw(3.5c)| .
EM machine              target machine





                real stack
        stack
        grows
EM stack        \s+2\(br\s0
        \s+2\(br\s0
        \s+2\(br\s0     _
        \s+2\(br\s0
        \s+2\(da\s0
                fake stack



_               _
.T&
ci s s.
Relation between EM stack, real stack and fake stack.
.TE
During code generation tokens will be kept on the fake stack as long
as possible but when they are moved to the real stack,
by generating code for the push,
all tokens above\v'-.25m'\(dg\v'.25m'
.FS
\(dg in this document the stack is assumed to grow downwards,
although the top of the stack will mean the first element that will
be popped.
.FE
the pushed tokens will be pushed also,
so the fake stack will not contain holes.
.PP
The information about the machine that 
.I cg
needs has to be given in a machine description table,
with as a major part a list of code rules telling 
.I cg
what to do when certain EM-instructions occur
with certain tokens on the fake stack.
Not all possible fake stack possibilities have to be given of course,
there is a possibility for providing rewriting rules, or
.I coercions
as they are called in this document.
.PP
The main loop of
.I cg
is:
.IP 1)
find a pattern of EM instructions starting at the current one to
generate code for.
This pattern will usually be of length one but longer patterns can be used.
Process any pseudo-instructions found.
.IP 2)
Select one of the possibly many stack patterns that go with this
EM pattern on the basis of heuristics, look ahead or both.
The cost fields provided in the token definitions and
instruction definitions are used
to compute costs during look ahead.
.IP 3)
Force the current fake stack contents to match the pattern.
This may involve
copying tokens to registers, making dummy transformations, e.g. to
transform a `local' into an `indexed from register' or might even
cause the move of the complete fake stack contents to the real stack
and then back into registers if no suitable coercions
were provided by the table writer.
.IP 4)
Execute the pseudocode associated with the code rule just selected,
this may cause registers to be allocated,
code to be emitted etc..
.IP 5)
Put tokens onto the fake stack to reflect the result of the operation.
.IP 6)
Insert some EM instructions into the stream;
this is possible but not common.
.IP 7)
Account for the cost.
The cost is kept in a (space, time) vector and look ahead decisions
are based on a linear combination of these.
The code generator calls on itself recursively during look ahead,
and the recursive incarnations return the costs they made.
The costs the top-level code generator makes is of course irrelevant.
.PP
The table that drives
.I cg
is not read in every time,
but instead is used at compile time
of
.I cg
to set parameters and to load pseudocode tables.
A program called
.I cgg
reads the table and produces large lists of numbers that are
compiled together with machine independent code to produce
a code generator for the machine at hand.
.PP
Part of the information needed is not easily expressed in this table
format and must be supplied in two separate files,
mach.h and mach.c.
Their contents are described later in this document.
.NH 1
Register variables
.PP
If the machine has more than enough registers to generate code with,
it is possible to reserve some of them for use as register variables.
If it has not, this section may be skipped and any references
to register variables in the rest of this document may be ignored.
.PP
The front ends generate messages to the back ends telling them which
local variables could go into registers.
The information given is the offset of the local, its size and type
and a scoring number, roughly the number of times it occurs.
.PP
The decision which variable to put in which register is taken by the
machine independent part of
.I cg
with the help of a scoring function provided by the table writer in mach.c.
The types of variables known are
.IP reg_any 12
Just a variable of some integer type.
Nothing special known about it.
.IP reg_float
A floating point variable.
.IP reg_loop
A loop control variable.
.IP reg_pointer
A pointer variable.
Usually they are better candidates to put in registers.
.PP
If register variables are used,
more functions must be supplied in mach.c.
These functions are explained later.
.NH 1
Description of the machine table
.PP
The machine description table consists of the
concatenation of the following sections:
.IP 1)
Constant definitions
.IP 2)
Property definitions
.IP 3)
Register definitions
.IP 4)
Token definitions
.IP 5)
Set definitions
.IP 6)
Instruction definitions
.IP 7)
Move definitions
.IP 8)
Test definitions
.IP 9)
Stack definitions
.IP 10)
Coercions
.IP 11)
Code rules
.PP
This is the order in the table
but the descriptions in this document will use a slightly different
order.
All sections except the first start with an uppercase header word.
Examples may be given in early stages that use knowledge that is explained
in a later stage.
If something is not clear the first time, please read on.
All will clear up in a couple of pages.
.PP
Input is in free format, white space and newlines may be used
at will to improve legibility.
Identifiers used in the table have the same syntax as C identifiers,
upper and lower case considered different, all characters significant.
Here is a list of reserved words; all of these are unavailable as identifiers.
.TS
box;
l l l l l.
ADDR    STACKINGRULES   gen     proc    test
COERCIONS       TESTS   highw   reg_any to
INSTRUCTIONS    TIMEFACTOR      inreg   reg_float       topeltsize
INT     TOKENS  is_rom  reg_loop        ufit
MOVES   call    kills   reg_pointer     uses
PATTERNS        cost    lab     regvar  with
PROPERTIES      defined labeldef        return  yields
REGISTERS       exact   leaving reusing 
SETS    example loww    rom     
SIZEFACTOR      fallthrough     move    samesign        
STACK   from    pat     sfit    
.TE
C style comments are accepted.
.DS
/* this is a comment */
.DE
If the standard constant facility is not enough the C-preprocessor can
be used to enhance the table format.
.PP
Integers in the table have the normal C-style syntax.
Decimal by default, octal when preceded by a 0
and hexadecimal when preceded by 0x.
.NH 2
Constant section
.PP
In the first part of the table some constants can be defined,
most with the syntax
.DS
NAME=value
.DE
value being an integer or string.
Three constants must be defined here:
.IP EM_WSIZE 14
Number of bytes in a machine word.
This is the number of bytes
a \fBloc\fP instruction will put on the stack.
.IP EM_PSIZE
Number of bytes in a pointer.
This is the number of bytes
a \fBlal\fP instruction will put on the stack.
.IP EM_BSIZE
Number of bytes in the hole between AB and LB.
If the calling sequence just saves PC and LB this
size will be twice the pointersize.
.PP
EM_WSIZE and EM_PSIZE are checked when a program is compiled
with the resulting code generator.
EM_BSIZE is used by
.I cg
to add to the offset of instructions dealing with locals
having positive offsets,
i.e. parameters.
.PP
Other constants can be defined here to be used as mnemonics
later in the table.
.PP
Optional is the definition of a printformat for integers in the code file.
This is given as
.DS
FORMAT = string
.DE
The string must be a valid printf(III) format,
and defaults to "%ld".
For example on the PDP-11 one can use
.DS
FORMAT= "0%lo"
.DE
to satisfy the old UNIX assembler that reads octal unless followed by
a period, and the ACK assembler that follows C conventions.
.PP
Tables under control of source code control systems like
.I sccs
or
.I rcs
can put their id-string here, for example
.DS
rcsid="$\&Header$"
.DE
These strings, like all strings in the table, will eventually
end up in the binary code generator produced.
.PP
Optionally one can give the factors with which the size and time
parts of the cost vector have to be multiplied to ensure they have the
same order of magnitude.
This can be done as
.DS
SIZEFACTOR = C\d3\u/C\d4\u
.sp
TIMEFACTOR = C\d1\u/C\d2\u
.DE
Above numbers must be read as rational numbers.
Defaults are 1/1 for both of them.
These constants set the default size/time tradeoff in the code generator,
so if TIMEFACTOR and SIZEFACTOR are both 1 the code generator will choose
at random between two code sequences where one has
cost (10,4) and the other has cost (8,6).
See also the description of the cost field below.
.NH 2
Property definition
.PP
This part of the table defines the list of properties that can be used
to differentiate between register classes.
It consists of a list of user-defined 
identifiers optionally followed by the size
of the property in parentheses, default EM_WSIZE.
Example for the PDP-11:
.TS
l l.
PROPERTIES      /* The header word for this section */

GENREG  /* All PDP registers */
REG     /* Normal registers (allocatable) */
ODDREG  /* All odd registers (allocatable) */
REGPAIR(4)      /* Register pairs for division */
FLTREG(4)       /* Floating point registers */
DBLREG(8)       /* Same, double precision */
GENFREG(4)      /* generic floating point */
GENDREG(8)      /* Same, double precision */
FLTREGPAIR(8)   /* register pair for modf */
DBLREGPAIR(16)  /* Same, double precision */
LOCALBASE       /* Guess what */
STACKPOINTER
PROGRAMCOUNTER
.TE
Registers are allocated by asking for a property,
so if for some reason in later parts of the table
one particular register must be allocated it
has to have a unique property.
.NH 2
Register definition
.PP
The next part of the tables describes the various registers of the
machine and defines identifiers
to be used in later parts of the tables.
Syntax:
.DS
<register definitions> : REGISTERS <list of definitions>
<definition> : <registerlist> ':' <propertylist> <optional regvar> '.'
<register> : ident [ '(' string ')' ] [ '=' ident [ '+' ident ] ]
.DE
Example for the PDP-11:
.TS
l l.
REGISTERS

r0,r2,r4        : GENREG,REG.
r1,r3   : GENREG,REG,ODDREG.
r01("r0")=r0+r1 : REGPAIR.
fr0("r0"),fr1("r1"),fr2("r2"),fr3("r3") : GENFREG,FLTREG.
dr0("r0")=fr0,dr1("r1")=fr1,
        dr2("r2")=fr2,dr3("r3")=fr3     : GENDREG,DBLREG.
fr01("r0")=fr0+fr1,fr23("r2")=fr2+fr3   : FLTREGPAIR.
dr01("r0")=dr0+dr1,dr23("r2")=dr2+dr3   : DBLREGPAIR.
lb("r5")        : GENREG,LOCALBASE.
sp      : GENREG,STACKPOINTER.
pc      : GENREG,PROGRAMCOUNTER.
.TE
.PP
The names in the left hand lists are names of registers as used
in the table.
They can optionally be followed by a string in parentheses,
their name as far as the assembler is concerned.
The default assembler name is the same as the table name.
A name can also be followed by
.DS
= othername
.DE
or
.DS
= othername + othername
.DE
which says that the register is composed of the parts
after the '=' sign.
The identifiers at the right hand side of the lists are
names of properties.
The end of each register definition is a period.
.PP
It might seem wise to list every property of a register,
so one might give r0 the extra property MFPTREG named after the not
too well known MFPT instruction on newer PDP-11 types,
but this is not a good idea,
especially since no use can be made of that instruction anyway.
Every extra property means the register set is more unorthogonal
and 
.I cg
execution time is influenced by that,
because it has to take into account a larger set of registers
that are not equivalent.
So try to keep the number of different register classes to a minimum.
When faced with the choice between two possible code rules
for a nonfrequent EM sequence,
one being elegant but requiring an extra property,
and the other less elegant,
elegance should probably loose.
.PP
Tables that implement register variables must mark registers to be used
for variable storage here by following the list of properties by one
of the following:
.DS
regvar \fIor\fP regvar(reg_any)
regvar(reg_loop)
regvar(reg_pointer)
regvar(reg_float)
.DE
meaning they are candidates for that type of variable.
All register variables of one type must be of the same size,
and they may have no subregisters.
Such registers are not available for normal code generation.
.NH 2
Stack token definition
.PP
The next part describes all possible tokens that can reside on
the fake stack during code generation.
Attributes of a token are described as a C struct declaration;
this is followed by the size of the token in bytes,
optionally followed by the cost of the token when used as an addressing mode
and the format to be used on output.
.PP
In general, when writing a table, it is not wise to try
to think of all necessary tokens in advance.
While writing the necessity or advisability for some token
will be seen and it can then be added together with the
stacking rules and coercions needed.
.PP
Tokens should usually be declared for every addressing mode
of the machine at hand and for every size directly usable in
a machine instruction.
Example for the PDP-11 (incomplete):
.TS
l l.
TOKENS

const2  = { INT num; } 2 cost(2,300) "$" num .
addr_local      = { INT ind; } 2 .
addr_external   = { ADDR off; } 2 "$" off.

regdef2 = { GENREG reg; } 2 "*" reg.
regind2 = { GENREG reg; ADDR off; } 2 off "(" reg ")" .
reginddef2      = { GENREG reg; ADDR off; } 2 "*" off "(" reg ")" .
regconst2       = { GENREG reg; ADDR off; } 2 .
relative2       = { ADDR off; } 2 off .
reldef2 = { ADDR off; } 2 "*" off.
.TE
.PP
Types allowed in the struct are ADDR, INT and all register properties.
The type ADDR means a string and an integer,
which is output as string+integer,
and arithmetic on mixed ADDR and INT is possible.
This is the right mode for anything that can be an
assembler address expression.
The type of the register in the token is strict.
At any assignment of an expression of type register to a token attribute
of type register
.I cgg
will check if the set of possible results from the expression is a subset
of the set of permissible values for the token attribute.
.PP
The cost-field is made up by the word
.I cost
followed by two numbers in parentheses, the size and timecosts
of this token when output in the code file.
If omitted, zero cost is assumed.
While generating code,
.I cg
keeps track of a linear combination of these costs together
with the costs of the instructions itself which we will see later.
The coefficients of this linear combination are influenced
by two things:
.IP 1)
The SIZEFACTOR and TIMEFACTOR constants,
as mentioned above.
.IP 2)
A run time option to
.I cg
that can adjust the time/space tradeoff to all positions
from 100% time to 100% space.
.LP
By supplying different code rules in certain situations
it is possible to get a code generator that can adjust its
code to the need of the moment.
This is probably most useful with small machines,
experience has shown that on the larger micro's and mini's
the difference between time-optimal and space-optimal code
is often small.
.PP
The printformat consists of a list of strings intermixed with
attributes from the token.
Strings are output literally, attributes are printed according
to their type and value.
Tokens without a printformat should never be output,
and
.I cgg
checks for this.
.PP
Notice that tokens need not correspond to addressing modes;
the regconst2 token listed above,
meaning the sum of the contents of the register and the constant,
has no corresponding addressing mode on the PDP-11,
but is included so that a sequence of add constant, load indirect,
can be handled efficiently.
This regconst2 token is needed as part of the path
.DS
REG -> regconst2 -> regind2
.DE
of which the first and the last "exist" and the middle is needed
only as an intermediate step.
.PP
Tokens with name `LOCAL' or `DLOCAL' are a special case when
register variables are used, this is explained further in the
section on token descriptions.
.NH 2
Sets
.PP
Usually machines have certain collections of addressing modes that
can be used with certain instructions.
The stack patterns in the table are lists of these collections
and since it is cumbersome to write out these long lists
every time, there is a section here to give names to these
collections.
Please note that it is not forbidden to write out a set
in the remainder of the table,
but for clarity it is usually better not to.
.LP
Example for the PDP-11 (incomplete):
.TS
l l.
SETS

src2    = GENREG + regdef2 + regind2 + reginddef2 + relative2 +
        \h'\w'= 'u'reldef2 + addr_external + const2 + LOCAL + ILOCAL +
        \h'\w'= 'u'autodec + autoinc .
dst2    = src2 - ( const2 + addr_external ) .
xsrc2   = src2 + ftoint .
src1    = regdef1 + regind1 + reginddef1 + relative1 + reldef1 .
dst1    = src1 .
src1or2 = src1 + src2 .
src4    = relative4 + regdef4 + DLOCAL + regind4 .
dst4    = src4 .
.TE
Permissible in the set construction are all the usual set operators, i.e.
.IP +
set union
.IP -
set difference
.IP *
set intersection
.PP
Normal operator priorities apply, and parentheses can be
used.
Every token identifier is also a set identifier
denoting the singleton collection of tokens containing
just itself.
Every register property as defined above is also a set
matching all registers with that property.
The standard set identifier ALL denotes the collection of 
all tokens.
.NH 2
Instruction definitions
.PP
In the next part of the table the instructions for the machine
are declared together with information about their operands.
Example for the PDP-11(very incomplete):
.DS
.ta 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64
INSTRUCTIONS
/* default cost */

cost(2,600)

/* Normal instructions */

adc dst2:rw:cc .
add src2:ro,dst2:rw:cc cost(2,450).
ash src2:ro,REG:rw:cc .
ashc src2:ro,REGPAIR+ODDREG:rw .
asl dst2:rw:cc .
asr dst2:rw:cc .
bhis "bcc" label .

/* floating point instructions */

movf "ldf" fsrc,freg .
movf "stf" freg,fdst .
.DE
As the examples show an instruction definition consists of the name
of the instruction,
optionally followed by an assembler mnemonic in
quotes-default is the name itself-and then
a list of operands,
optionally followed by the cost and then a period.
If the cost is omitted the cost just after the word
INSTRUCTIONS is assumed,
if that is also omitted the cost is zero.
The cost must be known by
.I cg
of course if it has multiple
code generation paths to choose from.
.PP
For each operand we have the set of possible token values,
followed by a qualifier that can be
.IP :ro
signifies that this operand is read only,
so it can be replaced by a register with the same contents
if available.
.IP :rw
signifies that the operand is read-write
.IP :wo
signifies that the operand is write only.
.IP :cc
says that after the instruction is finished, the condition codes
are set to this operand.
If none of the operands have the :cc qualifier set,
.I cg
will assume that condition codes were unaffected
(but see below).
.PP
The first three qualifiers are of course mutually exclusive.
The :ro qualifier does not cause any special action in the current
implementation, and the :wo and :rw qualifiers are treated equal.
It must be recommended however to be precise in the specifications,
since later enhancements to the code generator might use them.
.PP
As the last examples show it is not necessary to give one definition
for an instruction.
There are machines that have very unorthogonal instruction sets,
in fact most of them do,
and it is possible to declare each possible combination
of operands.
The
.I cgg
program will check all uses of the instruction to find out which
one was meant.
.PP
Although not in the PDP-11 example above there is a possibility
to describe instructions that have side effects to registers not
in the operand list.
The only thing possible is to say that the instruction is destructive
to some registers or the condition codes, by following the operand list
with the word 
.I kills
and a list of the things destroyed.
Example for some hypothetic accumulator machine:
.DS
add source2:ro kills ACCU :cc .
.DE
.PP
The cost fields in the definitions for tokens and instructions
are added together when generating code.
It depends on the machine at hand whether the costs are orthogonal
enough to make use of both these costs,
in extreme cases every combination of instructions and operands
can be given in this section,
all with their own costs.
.NH 2
Expressions
.PP
Throughout the rest of the table expressions can be used in some
places.
This section will give the syntax and semantics of expressions.
There are four types of expressions: integer, address, register and undefined.
Really the type register is nonexistent as such,
for each register expression
.I cgg
keeps a set of possible values,
and this set can be seen as the real type.
.PP
Type checking is performed by
.I cgg .
An operator with at least one undefined operand returns undefined except
for the defined() function mentioned below.
An undefined expression is interpreted as FALSE when it is needed
as a truth value.
It is the responsibility of the table writer to ensure no undefined
expressions are ever used as initialisers for token attributes.
This is unfortunately almost impossible to check for
.I cgg
so be careful.
.LP
Basic terms in an expression are
.IP number 16
A number is a constant of type integer.
Also usable is an identifier defined to a number in the constant
definition section.
.IP """string"""
A string within double quotes is a constant of type address.
All the normal C style escapes may be used within the string.
Also usable is an identifier defined to a string in the constant
definition section.
.IP [0-9][bf]
This must be read as a grep-pattern.
It evaluates to a string that is the label name for the
temporary label meant.
More about this in the section on code rules.
.IP REGIDENT
The name of a register is a constant of type register.
.IP $\fIi\fP
A dollarsign followed by a number is the representation of the argument
of EM instruction \fI\fP.
The type of the operand is dependent on the instruction,
sometimes it is integer,
sometimes it is address.
It is undefined when the instruction has no operand.
Instructions with type-letter w can occur without an operand.
This can be checked in the code rule with the defined() pseudo function.
.br
If it is unimaginable for the operand of the instruction ever to be
something different from a plain integer, the type is integer,
otherwise it is address.
.br
Those who want to know it exactly, the integer instruction types
are the instructions marked with the
type-letters c,f,l,n,o,s,r,w,z in the EM manual.
.br
.I Cg
makes all necessary conversions,
like adding EM_BSIZE to positive arguments of instructions
dealing with locals,
prepending underlines to global names,
converting code labels into a unique representation etc.
Details about this can be found in the section about
machine dependent C code.
.IP %1
This in general means the token mentioned first in the
stack pattern.
When used inside an expression the token must be a simple register.
Type of this is register.
.IP %1.off
This means attribute "off" of the first stack pattern token.
Type is the same as that of attribute "off".
To use this expression implies a check that all tokens
in the set used have the same attribute in the same place.
.IP %off
This means attribute "off" in the `current' token.
This can only be used when no confusion is possible about which token
was meant, eg. in the optional boolean expressions following token sets
in the move and test rules, in coercions or in the kills section inside
the code rules.
Same check as above.
.IP %1.1
This is the first subregister of the first token.
Previous comments apply.
.IP %b
A percent sign followed by a lowercase letter
stands for an allocated register.
This is the second allocated register.
.IP %a.2
The second subregister of the first allocated register.
.PP
All normal C operators apply to integers,
the + operator on addresses behaves as one would expect
and the only operators allowed on register expressions
are == and != .
Furthermore there are some special `functions':
.IP defined(e) 16
Returns 1 if expression 
.I e
is defined, 0 otherwise.
.IP samesign(e1,e2)
Returns 1 if integer expression 
.I e1
and 
.I e2
have the same sign.
.IP sfit(e1,e2)
Returns 1 if integer expression 
.I e1
fits as a signed integer
into a field of 
.I e2
bits, 0 otherwise.
.IP ufit(e1,e2)
Same as above but now for unsigned 
.I e1 .
.IP rom($a,n)
Integer expression giving word
.I n
from the \fBrom\fP descriptor
pointed at by EM instruction
number
.I a
in the EM-pattern.
Undefined if that descriptor does not exist.
.IP is_rom($a)
Integer expression indicating whether EM instruction number
.I a
in the EM-pattern refers to ROM. This may be useful for generating 
position-independent code with the ROM in read-only memory.
.I Is_rom
enables one to see the difference between ROM references and other data
references.
.IP loww($a)
Returns the lower half of the argument of EM instruction number
.I a .
This is used to split the arguments of a \fBldc\fP instruction.
.IP highw($a)
Same for upper half.
.LP
The next two `functions' are only needed in a table that
implements register variables.
.IP inreg(e) 16
Returns the status of the local variable with offset
.I e
from the localbase.
Value is an integer,
negative if the local was not allowed as a register
variable,
zero if it was allowed but not assigned to a register,
and the type of the register if it was assigned to a register.
This makes it possible to write
.DS
inreg($1)==reg_pointer
.DE
and similar things.
.IP regvar(e,t)
Type of this is register.
It returns the register the local with offset
.I e
is assigned to.
The table writer guarantees the register is one of type
.I t ,
with
.I t
one of reg_any, reg_loop, reg_pointer or reg_float.
If
.I t
is omitted reg_any is assumed.
Undefined if inreg(\fIe\fP)<=0 .
.LP
The next two `functions' are only needed in a table that
uses the top element size information.
.IP topeltsize($a) 16
Returns the size of the element on top of the EM-stack at the label
identified by $a.  This can be used to put the top of the stack in a
register at the moment of an unconditional jump.  At an unconditional jump,
the size of the top-element will always look 0.
.IP fallthrough($a)
Returns 1 if the label identified by $a can be reached via fallthrough, 0
otherwise.
.NH 2
Token descriptions
.PP
Throughout the rest of the table tokens must be described,
be it as operands of instructions or as stack-replacements.
In all those cases we will speak about a token description.
The possibilities for these will be described here.
.PP
All expressions of type register are token descriptions.
The construct %1 means the token matched first in the stack pattern.
All other token descriptions are those that are built on the spot.
They look like this:
.DS
{ <tokenname> , <list of token attribute initializing expressions> }
.DE
All expressions are type-checked by
.I cgg ,
and the number of initializers is also checked.
.PP
A special case of the last token descriptions occurs when
the token name is `LOCAL' or `DLOCAL' and the table uses register
variables. The first token attribute then must be of type integer and
the token description is automagically replaced by the register chosen
if the LOCAL (wordsize) or DLOCAL (twice the wordsize) was assigned
to a register.
.NH 2
Code rules
.PP
The largest section of the tables consists of the code generation rules.
They specify EM patterns, stack patterns, code to be generated etc.
Broadly the syntax is
.DS L
code rule : EM-part code-part
EM-part : EM-pattern | procedure-heading
code-part : code-description | procedure-call
code-description : stackpattern kills allocates generates yields leaving
.DE
Ignoring the "procedure"-part for now, the description for the EM-pattern
and the code-description follows.
Almost everything here is optional, the minimum code rule
is:
.DS
pat nop
.DE
that will simply throw away
.I nop
instructions.
.NH 3
The EM pattern
.PP
The EM pattern consists of a list of EM mnemonics
preceded by the word
.I pat
optionally followed by a boolean expression.
Examples:
.DS
pat \fBloe\fP
.DE
will match a single \fBloe\fP instruction,
.DS
pat \fBloc\fP \fBloc\fP \fBcif\fP $1==2 && $2==8
.DE
is a pattern that will match
.DS
\fBloc\fP 2
\fBloc\fP 8
\fBcif\fP
.DE
and
.DS
pat \fBlol\fP \fBinc\fP \fBstl\fP $1==$3
.DE
will match for example
.DS
.ta 10m 20m 30m 40m 50m 60m
\fBlol\fP 6     \fBlol\fP -2            \fBlol\fP 4
\fBinc\fP       \fBinc\fP       but \fInot\fP   \fBinc\fP
\fBstl\fP 6     \fBstl\fP -2            \fBstl\fP -4
.DE
A missing boolean expression evaluates to TRUE.
.PP
The code generator will match the longest EM pattern on every occasion,
if two patterns of the same length match the first in the table will be chosen,
while all patterns of length greater than or equal to three are considered
to be of the same length.
This rule of three is an unfortunate implementation dependent restriction,
but patterns longer than three EM instructions are luckily not needed
too often.
.PP
The EM mnemonic may also be the pseudo-instruction \fBlab\fP, which matches
a label.  Its argument can be used in testing on topeltsize and
fallthrough.  When this pattern is specified, the label should be defined
explicitly with a
.I labeldef
statement.
.PP
Following the EM-pattern there may be more than one code
rule,
.I cg
will choose using heuristics and the cost
information provided with the instruction and token
definitions.
Owing to parsing reasons of the table, the word
.I with
(see below)
is mandatory when there are more code rules attached to one
EM-pattern.
The stack pattern may be empty however.
.NH 3
The stack pattern
.PP
The optional stack pattern is a list of token sets preceded by the word
.I with .
The token sets are usually represented by set identifiers for clarity.
No boolean expression is allowed here.
The first expression is the one that matches the top of the stack.
.PP
If the pattern is followed by the word STACK
it only matches if there is nothing
else on the fake stack,
and the code generator will stack everything not matched at the start
of the rule.
.PP
The pattern can be preceded with the word
.I exact
following the
.I with
that tells the code generator not to try to coerce to the pattern
but only to use it when it is already present on the fake stack.
There are two reasons for this construction,
correctness and speed.
It is needed for correctness when the pattern contains a register
that is not transparent when data is moved through it.
.LP
Example: on the PDP-11 the shortest code for
.DS
\fBlae\fP a
\fBloi\fP 8
\fBlae\fP b
\fBsti\fP 8
.DE
is
.DS
movf _a,fr0
movf fr0,_b
.DE
if the floating point processor is in double
precision mode and fr0 is free.
Unfortunately this is not correct since a trap can occur on certain
kinds of data.
This could happen if there was a stack pattern for \fBsti\fP\ 8
like this:
.DS
with DBLREG
.DE
The code generator would then find that coercing the 8-byte global _a
to a floating point register and then storing it to _b was the cheapest,
if the space/time knob was turned far enough to space.
This can be prevented by changing the stack pattern to
.DS
with exact DBLREG
.DE
It is unfortunate that the type information is no longer present,
since if _a really is a floating point number the move could be
made without error.
.PP
The second reason for the 
.I exact
construct is speed.
When the code generator has a long list of possible stack patterns
for one EM pattern it can waste much time trying to find coercions
to all of them, while the mere presence of such a long list
indicates that the table writer has given many special cases.
Prepending all the special cases by
.I exact
will stop the code generator from trying to find things
that either cannot be done,
or are too expensive anyway.
.PP
So in general it is wise to prepend all stack patterns that
cannot be made by coercions with
.I exact .
.PP
Using both
.I exact
and STACK in the stack pattern has the effect that the rule will
only be taken if there is nothing else on the fake stack.
.NH 3
The kills part
.PP
The optional kills part describes certain tokens 
that should neither remain on
the fake stack, nor remembered as contents of registers.
This is usually only required with store operations.
The entire fake stack, except for the part matched in the stack pattern,
is searched for tokens matching the expression and they are copied
to the real stack.
Every register that contains the token is marked as empty.
.PP
Syntax is
.DS
kills <list of things to kill separated by commas>
thing to kill : token set optionally followed by boolean expression
.DE
Example:
.DS
kills regind2 %reg != lb || %off == $1
.DE
is a kills part used for example in the \fBinl\fP or \fBstl\fP code rule.
It removes all register offsetted tokens where the register is not the
localbase plus the local in which the store is done.
The necessity for this can be seen from the following example:
.DS
\fBlol\fP 4
\fBinl\fP 4
\fBstl\fP 6
.DE
Without a proper kills part in the rule for \fBinl\fP code would
be generated as here
.DS
inc 4(r5)
mov 4(r5),6(r5)
.DE
so local 6 would be given the new value of local 4 instead of the old
as the EM code prescribed.
.PP
When generating code for an EM-instruction like
.B sti
it is necessary to write a line in the table like
.DS
kills all_except_constant_or_register
.DE
where the long identifier is a set containing all tokens
that can be the destination of some random indirect store.
These indirect stores are the main reason to prevent this
.I kills
line to be deduced automatically by
.I cgg .
.PP
When generating something like a branch instruction it 
might be needed to empty the fake stack completely.
This can of course be done with
.DS
kills ALL
.DE
or by ending the stack pattern with the word STACK,
if the stack pattern does not start with
.I exact .
The latter does not erase the contents of registers.
.PP
It is unfortunate that this part is still present in the table
but it is too much for now to let the
.I cgg
program discover what rules ruin what kind of tokens.
Maybe some day .....
.NH 3
The allocates part
.PP
The optional register allocation part describes the registers needed.
Syntax is
.DS
uses <list of use elements separated by commas>
.DE
where itemlist is a list of three kinds of things:
.IP 1)
.I reusing
< a token description >, for example %1.
.br
This will instruct the code generator that all registers
contained in this token can be reused if they are not used
in another token on the fakestack,
so that they are available for allocation in this 
.I uses
line
if they were only used in that token.
See example below.
.IP 2)
a register property.
.br
This will allocate a register with that property,
that is marked as empty at this point.
Look ahead can be performed if there is more than one register available.
.IP 3)
a register property with initialization.
.br
This will allocate the register as in 2) but will also
initialize it.
This eases the task of the code generator because it can
find a register already filled with the right value
if it exists.
.LP
Examples:
.DS
uses ODDREG
.DE
will allocate an odd register, while 
.DS
uses REG={regind2,lb,$1}
.DE
will allocate a register while simultaneously filling it with
the asked value.
.br
Inside the coercion from xsrc2 to REG in the PDP-11 table
the following line can be found.
.DS
uses reusing %1, REG=%1
.DE
This tells the code generator that registers contained in %1 can be used
again and asks to fill the register allocated with %1.
So if %1={regind2,r3,"4"} and r3 is not in use elsewhere on the fake stack
the following code might be generated.
.DS
mov 4(r3),r3
.DE
In the rest of the line the registers allocated can be named by
%a and %b.1,%b.2, i.e. with lower case letters
in order of allocation.
.NH 3
The generates part
.PP
Code to be generated, also optionally, is specified as
the word
.I gen
followed by a list of items of the following kind:
.IP 1)
An instruction name followed by a comma-separated
list of token descriptions.
.I Cgg
will search the instruction definitions for the machine to find a suitable
instruction.
At code generation time the assembler name of the
instruction will be output followed by a space,
followed by a comma separated list of tokens.
.br
In the table an instruction without operands must be
followed by a period.
The author of
.I cgg
could not get 
.I yacc
to accept his syntax without it.
Sorry about this.
.IP 2)
a 
.I move
call.
This has the following syntax:
.DS
move <token description>,<token description>
.DE
Moves are handled specially since that enables the code generator
to keep track of register contents.
Example:
.DS
move r3,{regind2,lb,$1}
.DE
will generate code to move r3 to $1(r5) except when
r3 already was a copy of $1(r5).
Then the code will be omitted.
The rules describing how to move things to each other
can be found in the move definitions section described below.
.IP 3)
For machines that have condition codes,
which alas most of them do,
there are provisions to remember condition code settings
and prevent needless testing.
To set the condition code to a token put in the code the following call:
.DS
test <token description>
.DE
This will generate a test if the condition codes 
were not already set to that token.
The rules describing how to test things
can be found in the test definitions section described below.
See also the :cc qualifier that can be used at instruction
definition time.
.IP 4)
The
.I return
statement.
Only used when register variables are in use.
This statement causes a call to the machine dependent
C-routine 
.I regreturn .
Explanation of this must wait for the description of the
file mach.c below.
.IP 5)
The
.I labeldef
statement.  Its only argument should be that of the
.I lab
pseudo-instruction.  This is needed to generate local labels when the
top element size information is used.  It takes the form
.DS
        labeldef $i
.DE
.IP 6)
A temporary label of the form <digit>: may be placed here.
Expressions of the form [0-9][bf] in this code rule
generate the same string as is used for this label.
The code generator system could probably easily be changed
to make this work for assemblers that do not support this
type of label by generating unique labels itself.
Implementation of this is not contemplated at the moment.
.NH 3
Stack replacement
.PP
The optional stack replacement is a possibly empty list 
of tokens to be pushed onto the fake stack.
It start with the word
.I yields ,
and is followed by a list of token descriptions.
.PP
All tokens matched by the stack pattern at the beginning of the code rule
are first removed and their registers deallocated.
Items are pushed in the order of appearance.
This means that the last item will be on the top of the
stack after the push.
So if the stack pattern contained two sets
and they must be pushed back unchanged,
they have to be specified as stack replacement
.DS
yields %2 %1
.DE
and not the other way around.
This is known to cause errors in tables so watch out for
this!
.NH 3
EM replacement
.PP
In exceptional cases it might be useful to leave part of an EM-pattern
undone.
For example, a \fBsdl\fP instruction might 
be split into two \fBstl\fP instructions
when there is no 4-byte quantity on the stack.
The EM replacement part allows
one to express this.
It is activated by the word
.I leaving .
.LP
Example:
.DS
leaving \fBstl\fP $1 \fBstl\fP $1+2
.DE
The instructions are inserted in the stream so that they can match
the first part of a pattern in the next step.
Note that since the code generator traverses the EM instructions in a strict
linear fashion,
it is impossible to let the EM replacement match later parts of a pattern.
So if there is a pattern
.DS
\fBloc\fP \fBstl\fP $1==0
.DE
and the input is
.DS
\fBloc\fP 0 \fBsdl\fP 4
.DE
the \fBloc\fP\ 0 will be processed first,
then the \fBsdl\fP might be split into two \fBstl\fP's but the pattern
cannot match now.
.NH 3
Examples
.PP
A list of examples for the PDP-11 is given here.
Far from being complete it gives examples of most kinds
of instructions.
.DS
.ta 7.5c
pat loc yields {const2, $1}

pat ldc yields {const2, loww($1)} {const2, highw($1)}
.DE
These simple patterns just push one or more tokens onto the fake stack.
.DS
.ta 7.5c
pat lof
with REG        yields {regind2,%1,$1}
with exact regconst2    yields {regind2,%1.reg,$1+%1.off}
with exact addr_external        yields {relative2,$1+%1.off}
with exact addr_local   yields {LOCAL, %1.ind + $1,2}
.DE
This pattern shows the possibility to do different things
depending on the fake stack contents,
there are some rules for some specific cases plus a general rule,
not preceded by
.I exact
that can always be taken after a coercion,
if necessary.
.DS
.ta 7.5c
pat lxl $1>3
uses REG={LOCAL, SL, 2}, REG={const2,$1-1}
gen 1:
    move {regind2,%a, SL},%a
    sob %b,{label,1b}   yields %a
.DE
This rule shows register allocation with initialisation,
and the use of a temporary label.
The constant SL used here is defined to be the offset from lb
of the static link,
that is pushed by the Pascal compiler as the last argument of
a function.
.DS
.ta 7.5c
pat stf
with regconst2 xsrc2
  kills allexeptcon
  gen move %2,{regind2,%1.reg,$1+%1.off}
with addr_external xsrc2
  kills allexeptcon
  gen move %2,{relative2,$1+%1.off}
.DE
This rule shows the use of a
.I kills
part in a store instruction.
The set allexeptcon contains all tokens that can be the destination
of an indirect store.
.DS
.ta 7.5c
pat sde
with exact FLTREG
  kills posextern
  gen move %1,{relative4,$1}
with exact ftolong
  kills posextern
  gen setl.
      movfi %1.reg,{relative4,$1}
      seti.
with src2 src2
  kills posextern
  gen move %1, {relative2, $1 }
      move %2, {relative2, $1+2}
.DE
The rule for
.B sde
shows the use of the
.I exact
clause in both qualities,
the first is for correctness,
the second for efficiency.
The third rule is taken by default,
resulting in two separate stores,
nothing better exists on the PDP-11.
.DS
.ta 7.5c
pat sbi $1==2
with src2 REG
  gen sub %1,%2 yields %2
with exact REG src2-REG
  gen sub %2,%1
      neg %1    yields %1
.DE
This rule for
.I sbi
has a normal first part,
and a hand optimized special case as its second part.
.DS
.ta 7.5c
pat mli $1==2
with ODDREG src2
  gen mul %2,%1 yields %1
with src2 ODDREG
  gen mul %1,%2 yields %2
.DE
This shows the general property for rules with commutative
operators,
heuristics or look ahead will have to decide which rule is the best.
.DS
.ta 7.5c
pat loc sli $1==1 && $2==2
with REG
gen asl %1      yields %1
.DE
A simple rule involving a longer EM-pattern,
to make use of a specialized instruction available.
.DS
.ta 7.5c
pat loc loc cii $1==1 && $2==2
with src1or2
uses reusing %1,REG
gen movb %1,%a  yields %a
.DE
A somewhat more complicated example of the same.
Note the
.I reusing
clause.
.DS
.ta 7.5c
pat loc loc loc cii $1>=0 && $2==2 && $3==4
        leaving loc $1 loc 0
.DE
Shows a trivial example of EM-replacement.
This is a rule that could be done by the
peephole optimizer,
if word order in longs was defined in EM.
On a `big-endian' machine the two replacement
instructions would be the other way around.
.DS
.ta 7.5c
pat and $1==2
with const2 REG
  gen bic {const2,~%1.num},%2   yields %2
with REG const2
  gen bic {const2,~%2.num},%1   yields %1
with REG REG
  gen com %1
      bic %1,%2 yields %2
.DE
Shows the way to handle the absence
of an
.I and -instruction.
.DS
.ta 7.5c
pat set $1==2
with REG
uses REG={const2,1}
gen ash %1,%a   yields %a
.DE
Shows the building of a word-size set.
.DS
.ta 7.5c
pat lae aar $2==2 && rom($1,3)==1 && rom($1,1)==0 
        leaving adi 2

pat lae aar $2==2 && rom($1,3)==1 && rom($1,1)!=0 
        leaving adi 2 adp 0-rom($1,1)
.DE
Two rules showing the use of the rom pseudo function,
and some array optimalisation.
.DS
.ta 7.5c
pat bra
with STACK
gen jbr {label, $1}
.DE
A simple jump.
The stack pattern guarantees that everything will be stacked
before the jump is taken.
.DS
pat lab topeltsize($1)==2 && !fallthrough($1)
gen labeldef $1                                 yields r0

pat lab topeltsize($1)==2 && fallthrough($1)
with src2
gen move %1,r0
    labeldef $1                                 yields r0

pat lab topeltsize($1)!=2
with STACK
kills all
gen labeldef $1

pat bra topeltsize($1)==2
with src2 STACK
    gen move %1,d0
        jbr {label, $1}

pat bra topeltsize($1)!=2
with STACK
    gen jbr {label, $1}
.DE
The combination of these patterns make sure that the top of the EM-stack will
be in register r0 whenever necessary.  The top element size mechanism will
also show a size of 0 whenever a conditional branch to a label
occurs.  This saves a lot of patterns and hardly decreases performance.
When the same register is used to return function results, this can save
many moves to and from the stack.
.DS
.ta 7.5c
pat cal
with STACK
gen jsr pc,{label, $1}
.DE
A simple call.
Same comments as previous rule.
.DS
.ta 7.5c
pat lfr $1==2   yields r0
pat lfr $1==4   yields r1 r0
.DE
Shows the return area conventions of the PDP-11 table.
At this point a reminder:
the
.B asp
instruction, and some other instructions must leave
the function return area intact.
See the defining document for EM for exact information.
.DS
.ta 7.5c
pat ret $1==0
with STACK
gen mov lb,sp
    rts pc
.DE
This shows a rule for 
.B ret
in a table not using register variables.
In a table with register variables the 
.I gen
part would just contain
.I return .
.DS
.ta 7.5c
pat blm
with REG REG
uses REG={const2,$1/2}
gen 1:
    mov {autoinc,%2},{autoinc,%1}
    sob %a,{label,1b}
.DE
This rule for 
.B blm
already uses three registers of the same type.
.I Cgg
contains code to check all rules
to see if they can be applied from an empty fakestack.
It uses the marriage thesis from Hall,
a thesis from combinatorial mathematics,
to accomplish this.
.DS
.ta 7.5c
pat exg $1==2
with src2 src2  yields %1 %2
.DE
This rule shows the exchanging of two elements on the fake stack.
.NH 2
Code rules using procedures
.PP
To start this section it must be admitted at once that the
word procedure is chosen here mainly for its advertising
value.
It more resembles a glorified goto but this of course can
not be admitted in the glossy brochures.
This document will continue to use the word
procedure.
.PP
The need for procedures was felt after the first version of
the code generator system was made,
mainly because of conditional instructions.
Often the code sequences for
.B tlt ,
.B tle ,
.B teq ,
.B tne ,
.B tge
and
.B tgt
were identical apart from one opcode in the code rule.
The code sequence had to be written out six times however.
Not only did this increase the table size and bore the
table writer, it also led to errors when changing the table
since it happened now and then that five out of six
rules were changed.
.PP
In general the procedures in this table format are used to
keep one copy instead of six of the code rules for all
sorts of conditionals and one out of two for things like
increment/decrement.
.PP
And now the syntax, first the procedure definition,
which must indeed be defined before the call because
.I cgg
is one-pass.
The procedure heading replaces the EM-pattern in a code rule
and looks like this:
.DS
proc <identifier> <optional example>
.DE
The identifier is used in later calls and the example must
be used if expressions like $1 are used in the code rule.
.DS
<optional example> : example <list of EM-instructions>
.DE
so an example looks just like an EM-pattern, but without
the optional boolean expression.
The example is needed to know the types of $1 expressions.
The current version of
.I cgg
does not check correctness of the example, so be careful.
.PP
A procedure is called with string-parameters,
that are assembler opcodes.
They can be accessed by appending the string `[<number>]'
to a table opcode, where <number> is the parameter number.
The string `*' can be used as an equivalent for `[1]'.
Just in case this is not clear, here is an example for
a procedure to increment/decrement a register.
.DS
.ta 7.5c
incop REG:rw:cc .       /* in the INSTRUCTIONS part of course */

proc incdec
with REG
gen incop* %1   yields %1
.DE
The procedure is called with parameter "inc" or "dec".
.PP
The procedure call is given instead of the code-part of the
code rule and looks like this
.DS
call <identifier> '(' <comma-separated list of strings> ')'
.DE
which leads to the following large example:
.DS
.ta 7.5c
proc bxx example beq
with src2 src2 STACK
gen cmp %2,%1
    jxx* {label, $1}

pat blt call bxx("jlt")
pat ble call bxx("jle")
pat beq call bxx("jeq")
pat bne call bxx("jne")
pat bgt call bxx("jgt")
pat bge call bxx("jge")
.DE
.NH 2
Move definitions
.PP
We now jump back to near the beginning of the table
where the move definitions are found.
The move definitions directly follow the instruction
definitions.
.PP
In certain cases a move is called for,
either explicitly when a
.I move
instruction is used in a code rule,
or implicitly in a register initialization.
The different code rules possible to move data from one
spot to another are described here.
Example for the PDP-11:
.DS
.ta 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64
MOVES

from const2 %num==0 to dst2
gen clr %2

from src2 to dst2
gen mov %1,%2

from FLTREG to longf4-FLTREG
gen movfo %1,%2

from longf4-FLTREG to FLTREG
gen movof %1,%2
.DE
The example shows that the syntax is just
.DS
from <source> to <destination> gen <list of instructions>
.DE
Source and destination are a token set, optionally followed by
a boolean expression.
The code generator will take the first move that matches,
whenever a move is necessary.
.I Cgg
checks whether all moves called for in the table are present.
.NH 2
Test definitions
.PP
This part describes the instructions necessary to set the condition codes
to a certain token.
These rules are needed when the
.I test
instruction is used in code rules.
Example for the PDP-11:
.DS
.ta 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64
TESTS

to test src2
gen tst %1
.DE
So syntax is just
.DS
to test <source> gen <instruction list>
.DE
Source is the same thing as in the move definition.
.I Cgg
checks whether all tests called for in the table are present.
.NH 2
Some explanation about the rules behind coercions
.PP
A central part in code generation is taken by the
.I coercions .
It is the responsibility of the table writer to provide
all necessary coercions so that code generation can continue.
The minimal set of coercions are
the coercions to unstack every token expression,
in combination with the rules to stack every token.
It should not be possible to smuggle a table through
.I cgg
without these basic set available.
.PP
If these are present the code generator can always make the necessary
transformations by stacking and unstacking.
Of course for code quality it is usually best to provide extra coercions
to prevent this stacking to take place.
.I Cg
discriminates three types of coercions:
.IP 1)
Unstacking coercions.
This category can use the
.I uses
clause in its code.
.IP 2)
Splitting coercions, these are the coercions that split
larger tokens into smaller ones.
.IP 3)
Transforming coercions, these are the coercions that transform
a token into another of the same size.
This category can use the
.I uses
clause in its code.
.PP
When a stack configuration does not match the stack pattern
.I coercions
are searched for in the following order:
.IP 1)
First tokens are split if necessary to get their sizes right.
.IP 2)
Then transforming coercions are found that will make the pattern match.
.IP 3)
Finally if the stack pattern is longer than the fake stack contents
unstacking coercions will be used to fill up the pattern.
.PP
At any point, when coercions are missing so code generation could not
continue, the offending tokens are stacked.
.NH 2
Stack definitions
.PP
The next part of the table defines the stacking rules for the machine.
Each token that may reside on the fake stack must have a rule attached
to put it on the real stack.
Example for the PDP-11:
.DS
.ta 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64
STACKINGRULES

from const2 %num==0 to STACK
gen clr {autodec,sp}

from src2 to STACK
gen mov %1,{autodec,sp}

from regconst2 to STACK
gen mov %1.reg,{autodec,sp}
    add {addr_external, %1.off},{regdef2,sp}

from DBLREG to STACK
gen movf %1,{autodec,sp}

from FLTREG  to STACK
gen movfo %1,{autodec,sp}

from regind8 to STACK
uses REG
gen move %1.reg,%a
    add {addr_external, 8+%1.off},%a
    mov {autodec, %a},{autodec,sp}
    mov {autodec, %a},{autodec,sp}
    mov {autodec, %a},{autodec,sp}
    mov {autodec, %a},{autodec,sp}
.DE
.PP
These examples should be self-explanatory, except maybe for the last one.
It is possible inside a stacking-rule to use a register.
Since however the stacking might also take place at a moment
when no registers are free, it is mandatory that for each token
there is one stackingrule that does not use a register.
The code generator uses the first rule possible.
.NH 2
Coercions
.PP
The next part of the table defines the coercions that are possible
on the defined tokens.
Example for the PDP-11:
.DS
.ta 7.5c
COERCIONS

from STACK
uses REG
gen mov {autoinc,sp},%a yields %a

from STACK
uses DBLREG
gen movf {autoinc,sp},%a        yields %a

from STACK
uses REGPAIR
gen mov {autoinc,sp},%a.1
    mov {autoinc,sp},%a.2       yields %a
.DE
These three coercions just deliver a certain type
of register by popping it from the real stack.
.DS
.ta 7.5c
from LOCAL      yields {regind2,lb,%1.ind}

from DLOCAL     yields {regind4,lb,%1.ind}

from REG        yields {regconst2, %1, 0}
.DE
These three are zero-cost rewriting rules.
.DS
.ta 7.5c
from regconst2 %1.off==1
uses reusing %1,REG=%1.reg
gen inc %a      yields %a

from regconst2
uses reusing %1,REG=%1.reg
gen add {addr_external, %1.off},%a      yields %a

from addr_local
uses REG
gen mov lb,%a
    add {const2, %1.ind},%a     yields %a
.DE
The last three are three different cases of the coercion
register+constant to register.
Only in the last case is it always necessary to allocate
an extra register,
since arithmetic on the localbase is unthinkable.
.DS
.ta 7.5c
from xsrc2
uses reusing %1, REG=%1 yields %a

from longf4
uses FLTREG=%1  yields %a

from double8
uses DBLREG=%1  yields %a

from src1
uses REG={const2,0}
gen bisb %1,%a  yields %a
.DE
These examples show the coercion of different
tokens to a register of the needed type.
The last one shows the trouble needed on a PDP-11 to
ensure bytes are not sign-extended.
In EM it is defined that the result of a \fBloi\fP\ 1
instruction is an integer in the range 0..255.
.DS
.ta 7.5c
from REGPAIR    yields %1.2 %1.1

from regind4    yields {regind2,%1.reg,2+%1.off}
            {regind2,%1.reg,%1.off}

from relative4  yields {relative2,2+%1.off}
            {relative2,%1.off}
.DE
The last examples are splitting rules.
.PP
The examples show that
all coercions change one token on the fake stack into one or more others,
possibly generating code.
The STACK token is supposed to be on the fake stack when it is
really empty, and can only be changed into one other token.
.NH 1
The files mach.h and mach.c
.PP
The table writer must also supply two files containing
machine dependent declarations and C code.
These files are mach.h and mach.c.
.NH 2
Types in the code generator
.PP
Three different types of integer coexist in the code generator
and their range depends on the machine at hand.
They are defined depending on the Target EM_WSIZE, or TEM_WSIZE,
and TEM_PSIZE.
The type 'int' is used for things like counters that won't require
more than 16 bits precision.
The type 'word' is used among others to assemble datawords and
is of type 'long'.
The type 'full' is used for addresses and is of type 'long' if
TEM_WSIZE>2 or TEM_PSIZE>2.
.PP
In macro and function definitions in later paragraphs implicit typing
will be used for parameters, that is parameters starting with an 's'
will be of type string, and the letters 'i','w','f' will stand for
int, word and full respectively.
.NH 2
Global variables to work with
.PP
Some global variables are present in the code generator
that can be manipulated by the routines in mach.h and mach.c.
.LP
The declarations are:
.DS L
.ta 20
FILE *codefile; /* code is emitted on this stream */
word part_word; /* words to be output are put together here */
int part_size;  /* number of bytes already put in part_word */
char str[];     /* Last string read in */
long argval;    /* Last int read and kept */
.DE
.NH 2
Macros in mach.h
.PP
In the file mach.h a collection of macros is defined that have
to do with formatting of assembly code for the machine at hand.
Some of these macros can of course be left undefined in which case the
macro calls are left in the source and will be treated as 
function calls.
These functions can then be defined in \fImach.c\fR.
.PP
The macros to be defined are:
.IP ex_ap(s) 16
Must print the magic incantations that will mark the symbol \fI\fR
to be exported to other modules.
This is the translation of the EM \fBexa\fP and \fBexp\fP instructions.
.IP in_ap(s)
Same to import the symbol.
Translation of \fBina\fP and \fBinp\fP.
.IP newplb(s)
Must print the definition of procedure label \fIs\fR.
If left undefined the newilb() macro is used instead.
.IP newilb(s)
Must print the definition of instruction label \fIs\fR.
.IP newdlb(s)
Must print the definition of data label \fIs\fR.
.IP dlbdlb(s1,s2)
Must define data label
.I s1
to be equal to
.I s2 .
.IP newlbss(s,f)
Must declare a piece of memory initialized to BSS_INIT(see below)
of length 
.I f
and with label
.I s .
.IP cst_fmt
Format to be used when converting constant arguments of
EM instructions to string.
Argument to be formatted will be 'full'.
.IP off_fmt
Format to be used for integer part of label+constant,
argument will be 'full'.
.IP fmt_ilb(ip,il,s)
Must use the numbers 
.I ip
and 
.I il
that are a procedure number
and a label number respectively and copy a string to
.I s
that must be unique for that combination.
This procedure is optional, if it is not given ilb_fmt
must be defined as below.
.IP ilb_fmt
Format to be used for creation of unique instruction labels.
Arguments will be a unique procedure number (int) and the label
number (int).
.IP dlb_fmt
Format to be used for printing numeric data labels.
Argument will be 'int'.
.IP hol_fmt
Format to be used for generation of labels for
space generated by a
.B hol
pseudo.
Argument will be 'int'.
.IP hol_off
Format to be used for printing of the address of an element in
.B hol
space.
Arguments will be the offset in the
.B hol
block (word) and the number of the
.B hol
(int).
.IP con_cst(w)
Must generate output that will assemble into one machine word.
.IP con_ilb(s)
Must generate output that will put the address of the instruction label
into the datastream.
.IP con_dlb(s)
Must generate output that will put the address of the data label
into the datastream.
.IP fmt_id(sf,st)
Must take the string in
.I sf
that is a nonnumeric global label, and transform it into a copy made to
.I st
that will not collide with reserved assembler words and system labels.
This procedure is optional, if it is not given the id_first macro is used
as defined below.
.IP id_first
Must be a character.
This is prepended to all nonnumeric global labels if their length
is shorter than the maximum allowed(currently 8) or if they already
start with that character.
This is to avoid conflicts of user labels with system labels.
.IP BSS_INIT
Must be a constant.
This is the value filled in all the words not initialized explicitly.
This is loader and system dependent.
If omitted no initialization is assumed.
.NH 3
Example mach.h for the PDP-11
.DS L
.ta 4c
#define ex_ap(y)        fprintf(codefile,"\et.globl %s\en",y)
#define in_ap(y)        /* nothing */

#define newplb(x)       fprintf(codefile,"%s:\en",x)
#define newilb(x)       fprintf(codefile,"%s:\en",x)
#define newdlb(x)       fprintf(codefile,"%s:\en",x)
#define dlbdlb(x,y)     fprintf(codefile,"%s=%s\en",x,y)
#define newlbss(l,x)    fprintf(codefile,"%s:.=.+%d.\en",l,x);

#define cst_fmt "$%d."
#define off_fmt "%d."
#define ilb_fmt "I%x_%x"
#define dlb_fmt "_%d"
#define hol_fmt "hol%d"

#define hol_off "%ld.+hol%d"

#define con_cst(x)      fprintf(codefile,"%ld.\en",x)
#define con_ilb(x)      fprintf(codefile,"%s\en",x)
#define con_dlb(x)      fprintf(codefile,"%s\en",x)

#define id_first        '_'
#define BSS_INIT        0
.DE
.NH 2
Functions in mach.c
.PP
In mach.c some functions must be supplied,
mostly manipulating data resulting from pseudoinstructions.
The specifications are given here,
implicit typing of parameters as above.
.IP -
con_part(isz,word)
.br
This function must manipulate the globals 
part_word and part_size to append the isz bytes
contained in word to the output stream.
If part_word is full, i.e. part_size==TEM_WSIZE
the function part_flush() may be called to empty the buffer.
This is the function that must go through the trouble of
doing byte order in words correct.
.IP -
con_mult(w_size)
.br
This function must take the string str[] and create an integer
from the string of size w_size and generate code to assemble global
data for that integer.
Only the sizes for which arithmetic is implemented need be
handled,
so if 200-byte integer division is not implemented,
200-byte integer global data don't have to be implemented.
Here one must take care of word order in long integers.
.IP -
con_float()
.br
This function must generate code to assemble a floating
point number of which the size is contained in argval
and the ASCII representation in str[].
.IP -
prolog(f_nlocals)
.br
This function is called at the start of every procedure.
Function prolog code must be generated,
and room made for local variables for a total of f_nlocals bytes.
.IP -
mes(w_mesno)
.br
This function is called when a
.B mes
pseudo is seen that is not handled by the machine independent part.
The example below shows all one probably have to know about that.
.IP -
segname[]
.br
This is not a function,
but an array of four strings.
These strings are put out whenever the code generator
switches segments.
Segments are SEGTXT, SEGCON, SEGROM and SEGBSS in that order.
.PP
If register variables are used in a table, the program
.I cgg
will define the word REGVARS during compilation of the sources.
So the following functions described here should be bracketed
by #ifdef REGVARS and #endif.
.IP -
regscore(off,size,typ,freq,totyp) long off;
.br
This function should assign a score to a register variable,
the score should preferably be the estimated number of bytes
gained when it is put in a register.
Off and size are the offset and size of the variable,
typ is the type, that is reg_any, reg_pointer, reg_loop or reg_float.
Freq is the count of static occurrences, and totyp
is the type of the register it is planned to go into.
.br
Keep in mind that the gain should be net, that is the cost for
register save/restore sequences and the cost of initialisation
in the case of parameters should already be included.
.IP -
i_regsave()
.br
This function is called at the start of a procedure, just before
register saves are done.
It can be used to initialise some variables if needed.
.IP -
f_regsave()
.br
This function is called at end of the register save sequence.
It can be used to do the real saving if multiple register move
instructions are available.
.IP -
regsave(regstr,off,size) char *regstr; long off;
.br
Should either do the real saving or set up a table to have
it done by f_regsave.
Note that initialisation of parameters should also be done,
or planned here.
.IP -
regreturn()
.br
Should restore saved registers and return.
The function result is already in the function return area by now.
.NH 3
Example mach.c for the PDP-11
.PP
As an example of the sort of code expected,
the mach.c for the PDP-11 is presented here.
.DS L
.ta 0.5i 1i 1.5i 2i 2.5i 3i 3.5i 4i 4.5i
/*
 * machine dependent back end routines for the PDP-11
 */

con_part(sz,w) register sz; word w; {

        while (part_size % sz)
                part_size++;
        if (part_size == 2)
                part_flush();
        if (sz == 1) {
                w &= 0xFF;
                if (part_size)
                        w <<= 8;
                part_word |= w;
        } else {
                assert(sz == 2);
                part_word = w;
        }
        part_size += sz;
}

con_mult(sz) word sz; {
        long l;

        if (sz != 4)
                fatal("bad icon/ucon size");
        l = atol(str);
        fprintf(codefile,"\et%o;%o\en",(int)(l>>16),(int)l);
}

con_float() {
        double f;
        register short *p,i;

        /*
         * This code is correct only when the code generator is
         * run on a PDP-11 or VAX-11 since it assumes native
         * floating point format is PDP-11 format.
         */

        if (argval != 4 && argval != 8)
                fatal("bad fcon size");
        f = atof(str);
        p = (short *) &f;
        i = *p++;
        if (argval == 8) {
                fprintf(codefile,"\et%o;%o;",i,*p++);
                i = *p++;
        }
        fprintf(codefile,"\et%o;%o\en",i,*p++);
}

#ifdef REGVARS

char Rstring[10];
full lbytes;
struct regadm {
        char *ra_str;
        long  ra_off;
} regadm[2];
int n_regvars;

regscore(off,size,typ,score,totyp) long off; {

        /*
         * This function is full of magic constants.
         * They are a result of experimentation.
         */

        if (size != 2)
                return(-1);
        score -= 1;     /* allow for save/restore */
        if (off>=0)
                score -= 2;
        if (typ==reg_pointer)
                score *= 17;
        else if (typ==reg_loop)
                score = 10*score+50;    /* Guestimate */
        else
                score *= 10;
        return(score);  /* 10 * estimated # of words of profit */
}

i_regsave() {

        Rstring[0] = 0;
        n_regvars=0;
}

f_regsave() {
        register i;

        if (n_regvars==0 || lbytes==0) {
                fprintf(codefile,"mov r5,-(sp)\enmov sp,r5\en");
                if (lbytes == 2)
                        fprintf(codefile,"tst -(sp)\en");
                else if (lbytes!=0)
                        fprintf(codefile,"sub $0%o,sp\en",lbytes);
                for (i=0;i<n_regvars;i++)
                        fprintf(codefile,"mov %s,-(sp)\en",regadm[i].ra_str);
        } else {
                if (lbytes>6) {
                        fprintf(codefile,"mov $0%o,r0\en",lbytes);
                        fprintf(codefile,"jsr r5,PR%s\en",Rstring);
                } else {
                        fprintf(codefile,"jsr r5,PR%d%s\en",lbytes,Rstring);
                }
        }
        for (i=0;i<n_regvars;i++)
                if (regadm[i].ra_off>=0)
                        fprintf(codefile,"mov 0%lo(r5),%s\en",regadm[i].ra_off,
                                                regadm[i].ra_str);
}

regsave(regstr,off,size) char *regstr; long off; {

        fprintf(codefile,"/ Local %ld into %s\en",off,regstr);
        strcat(Rstring,regstr);
        regadm[n_regvars].ra_str = regstr;
        regadm[n_regvars].ra_off = off;
        n_regvars++;
}

regreturn() {

        fprintf(codefile,"jmp RT%s\en",Rstring);
}

#endif

prolog(nlocals) full nlocals; {

#ifndef REGVARS
        fprintf(codefile,"mov r5,-(sp)\enmov sp,r5\en");
        if (nlocals == 0)
                return;
        if (nlocals == 2)
                fprintf(codefile,"tst -(sp)\en");
        else
                fprintf(codefile,"sub $0%o,sp\en",nlocals);
#else
        lbytes = nlocals;
#endif
}

mes(type) word type; {
        int argt ;

        switch ( (int)type ) {
        case ms_ext :
                for (;;) {
                        switch ( argt=getarg(
                            ptyp(sp_cend)|ptyp(sp_pnam)|sym_ptyp) ) {
                        case sp_cend :
                                return ;
                        default:
                                strarg(argt) ;
                                fprintf(codefile,".globl %s\en",argstr) ;
                                break ;
                        }
                }
        default :
                while ( getarg(any_ptyp) != sp_cend ) ;
                break ;
        }
}

char    *segname[] = {
        ".text",        /* SEGTXT */
        ".data",        /* SEGCON */
        ".data",        /* SEGROM */
        ".bss"          /* SEGBSS */
};
.DE
.NH 1
Internal workings of the code generator.
.NH 2
Description of tables.c and tables.h contents
.PP
In this section the intermediate files will be described 
that are produced by
.I cgg
and compiled with machine independent code to produce a code generator.
.NH 3
Tables.c
.PP
Tables.c contains a large number of initialized array's of all sorts.
Description of each follows:
.br
.in 1i
.ti -0.5i
byte coderules[]
.br
Pseudo code interpreted by the code generator.
Always starts with some opcode followed by operands depending
on the opcode.
Some of the opcodes have an argument encoded in the upper three
bits of the opcode byte.
Integers in this table are between 0 and 32767 and have a one byte
encoding if between 0 and 127.
.ti -0.5i
char wrd_fmt[]
.br
The format used for output of words.
.ti -0.5i
char stregclass[]
.br
Number of computed static register class per register.
Two registers are in the same class if they have the same properties
and don't share a common subregister.
.ti -0.5i
struct reginfo machregs[]
.br
Info per register.
Initialized with representation string, size,
members of the register and set of registers affected when this
one is changed.
Also contains room for run time information,
like contents and reference count.
.ti -0.5i
tkdef_t tokens[]
.br
Information per tokentype.
Initialized with size, cost, type of operands and formatstring.
.ti -0.5i
node_t enodes[]
.br
List of triples representing expressions for the code generator.
.ti -0.5i
string codestrings[]
.br
List of strings.
All strings are put in a list and checked for duplication,
so only one copy per string will reside here.
.ti -0.5i
set_t machsets[]
.br
List of token expression sets.
Bit 0 of the set is used for the SCRATCH property of registers,
bit 1 upto NREG are for the corresponding registers
and bit NREG+1 upto the end are for corresponding tokens.
.ti -0.5i
inst_t tokeninstances[]
.br
List of descriptions for building tokens.
Contains type of rule for building one,
plus operands depending on the type.
.ti -0.5i
move_t moves[]
.br
List of move rules.
Contains token expressions for source and destination
plus index for code rule.
.ti -0.5i
test_t tests[]
.br
List of test rules.
Contains token expressions for source
plus index for code rule.
.ti -0.5i
byte pattern[]
.br
EM patterns.
This is structured internally as chains of patterns,
each chain pointed at by pathash[].
After each pattern the list of possible code rules is given.
.ti -0.5i
int pathash[256]
.br
Indices into pattern[] for all patterns with a certain low order
byte of the hashing function.
.ti -0.5i
c1_t c1coercs[]
.br
List of rules to stack tokens.
Contains token expressions,
register needed,
cost
and code rule.
.ti -0.5i
c2_t c2coercs[]
.br
List of splitting coercions.
Token expressions,
split factor,
replacements
and code rule.
.ti -0.5i
c3_t c3coercs[]
.br
List of one to one coercions.
Token expressions,
register needed,
replacement
and code rule.
.ti -0.5i
struct reginfo **reglist[]
.br
List of lists of pointers to register information.
For every property the list is here
to find the registers corresponding to it.
.in 0
.NH 3
tables.h
.PP
In tables.h various derived constants for the tables are
given.
They are then used to determine array sizes in the actual code generator,
plus loop termination in some cases.
.NH 2
Other important data structures
.PP
During code generation some other data structures are used
and here is a short description of some of the important ones.
.PP
Tokens are kept in the code generator as a struct consisting of
one integer
.I t_token
which is -1 if the token is a register,
and the number of the token otherwise,
plus an array of
.I TOKENSIZE
unions
.I t_att
of which the first is the register number in case of a register.
.PP
The fakestack is an array of these tokens,
there is a global variable
.I stackheight .
.PP
The results of expressions are kept in a struct
.I result
with elements
.I e_typ ,
giving the type of the expression:
.I EV_INT ,
.I EV_REG
or
.I EV_ADDR ,
and a union
.I e_v
which contains the real result.
.NH 2
A tour through the sources
.NH 3
codegen.c
.PP
The file codegen.c contains one large function consisting
of one giant switch statement.
It is the interpreter for the code generator pseudo code
as contained in code rules[].
This function can call itself recursively when doing look ahead.
Arguments are:
.IP codep 10
Pointer into code rules, pseudo program counter.
.IP ply
Number of EM pattern look ahead allowed.
.IP toplevel
Boolean telling whether this is the toplevel codegen() or
a deeper incarnation.
.IP costlimit
A cutoff value to limit searches.
If the cost crosses costlimit the incarnation can terminate.
.IP forced
A register number if nonzero.
This is used inside coercions to force the allocate() call to allocate
a register determined by earlier look ahead.
.PP
The instructions inplemented in the switch:
.NH 4
DO_DLINE
.PP
Prints debugging information if the code generator runs in debug mode.
This information is only generated if
.I cgg
was called with the -d flag.
.NH 4
DO_NEXTEM
.PP
Matches the next EM pattern and does look ahead if necessary to find the best
code rule associated with this pattern.
Heuristics are used to determine best code rule when possible.
This is done by calling the distance() function.
It can also handle the procedure mechanism.
.NH 4
DO_COERC
.PP
This sets the code generator in the state to do a from stack coercion.
.NH 4
DO_XMATCH
.PP
This is done when a match no longer has to be checked.
Used when the nocoercions: trick is used in the table.
.NH 4
DO_MATCH
.PP
This is the big one inside this function.
It has the task to transform the contents of the current
fake stack to match the pattern given after it.
.PP
Since the code generator does not know combining coercions,
i.e. there is no way to make a big token out of two smaller ones,
the first thing done is to stack every token that is too small.
After that all tokens too big are split if possible to the right size.
.PP
Next the coercions are sought that would transform tokens in place to
the right one, plus the coercions that would pop tokens of the stack.
Each of those might need a register, so a list of registers is generated
and at the end of looking for coercions the function 
.I tuples()
is called to generate the list of all possible \fIn\fP-tuples,
where 
.I n
equals the number of registers needed.
.PP
Look ahead is now performed if the number of tuples is greater than one.
If no possibility is found within the costlimit,
the fake stack is made smaller by pushing the bottom token,
and this process is repeated until either a way is found or
the fake stack is completely empty and there is still no way
to make the match.
.PP
If there is a way the corresponding coercions are executed
and the code is finished.
.NH 4
DO_REMOVE
.PP
Here the kills clause is executed, all tokens matched by the 
token expression plus boolean expression are pushed.
In the current implementation there is no attempt to move those
tokens to registers, but that is a possible future extension.
.NH 4
DO_DEALLOCATE
.PP
This one temporarily decrements by one the reference count of all registers
contained in the token given as argument.
.NH 4
DO_REALLOCATE
.PP
Here all temporary deallocates are made undone.
.NH 4
DO_ALLOCATE
.PP
This is the part that allocates a register and decides which one to use.
If the
.I forced
argument was given its task is simple,
otherwise some work must be done.
First the list of possible registers is scanned,
all free registers noted and it is noted whether any of those
registers is already
containing the initialization.
If no registers are available some fakestack token is stacked and the
process is repeated.
.PP
After that if an exact match was found, 
the list of registers is reduced to one register matching exactly
out of every register class.
Now look ahead is performed if necessary and the register chosen.
If an initialization was given the corresponding move is performed,
otherwise the register is marked empty.
.NH 4
DO_INSTR
.PP
This prints an instruction and its operands.
Only done on toplevel.
.NH 4
DO_MOVE
.PP
Calls the move() function in the code generator to implement the move
instruction in the table.
.NH 4
DO_TEST
.PP
Calls the test() function in the code generator to implement the test
instruction in the table.
.NH 4
DO_ERASE
.PP
Marks the register that is its argument as empty.
.NH 4
DO_TOKREPLACE
.PP
This is the token replacement part.
It is also called if there is no token replacement because it has
some other functions as well.
.PP
First the tokens that will be pushed on the fake stack are computed
and stored in a temporary array.
Then the tokens that were matched in this rule are popped
and their embedded registers have their reference count
decremented.
After that the replacement tokens are pushed.
.PP
Finally all registers allocated in this rule have their reference count
decremented.
If they were not pushed on the fake stack they will be available again
in the next code rule.
.NH 4
DO_EMREPLACE
.PP
Places replacement EM instructions back into the instruction stream.
.NH 4
DO_COST
.PP
Accounts for cost as given in the code rule.
.NH 4
DO_RETURN
.PP
Returns from this level of codegen().
Is used at the end of coercions,
move rules etc..
.NH 4
DO_LABDEF
.PP
This prints a label when the top element size mechanism is used.  Only done on
toplevel.
.NH 3
compute.c
.PP
This module computes the various expressions as given
in the enodes[] array.
Nothing very special happens here,
it is just a recursive function computing leaves
of expressions and applying the operator.
.NH 3
equiv.c
.PP
In this module the tuples() function is implemented.
It is given the number of registers needed and
a list of register lists and it constructs a list of tuples
where the \fIn\fP'th register comes from the \fIn\fP'th list.
Before the list is constructed however 
the dynamic register classes are computed.
Two registers are in the same dynamic class if they are in the
same static class and their contents is the same.
.PP
After that the permute() recursive function is called to
generate the list of tuples.
After construction a generated tuple is added to the list
if it is not already pairwise in the same class
or if the register relations are not the same,
i.e. if the first and second register share a common
subregister in one tuple and not in the other they are considered different.
.NH 3
fillem.c
.PP
This is the routine that does the reading of EM instructions
and the handling of pseudos.
The mach.c module provided by the table writer is included
at the end of this module.
The routine fillemlines() is called by nextem() at toplevel
to make sure there are enough instruction to match.
It fills the EM instruction buffer up to 5 places from the end to
keep room for EM replacement instructions,
or up to a pseudo.
.PP
The dopseudo() function performs the function of the pseudo last
encountered.
If the pseudo is a 
.B rom
the corresponding label is saved with the contents of the
.B rom
to be available to the code generator later.
The rest of the routines are small service routines for either
input or data output.
.NH 3
gencode.c
.PP
This module contains routines called by codegen() to generate the real
code to the codefile.
The function genstr() gets a string as argument and copies it to codefile.
The prtoken() function interprets the tokenformat as given in
the tokens[] array.
.NH 3
glosym.c
.PP
This module maintains a list of global symbols that have a 
.B rom
pseudo associated.
There are functions to enter a symbol and to find a symbol.
.NH 3
label.c
.PP
This module contains routines to handle the top element size messages.
.NH 3
main.c
.PP
Main routine of the code generator.
Processes arguments and flags.
Flags available are:
.IP -d
Sets debug mode if the code generator was not compiled with
the NDEBUG macro defined.
The flag can be followed by a digit specifying the amount of debugging
wanted,
and by @labelname giving the start of debugging.
Debug mode gives very long output on stderr indicating
all steps of the code generation process including nesting
of the codegen() function.
.IP -p\fIn\fP
Sets the look ahead depth to
.I n ,
the
.I p
stands for ply,
a well known word in chess playing programs.
.IP -w\fIn\fP
Sets the weight percentage for size in the cost function to
.I n
percent.
Uses Euclides algorithm to simplify rationals.
.NH 3
move.c
.PP
Function to implement the move instruction in the tables,
register initialization and the test instruction and associated bookkeeping.
First tests are made to try to prevent the move from really happening.
After that, if there is an after that,
the move rule is found and the code executed.
.NH 3
nextem.c
.PP
The entry point of this module is nextem().
It hashes the next three EM instructions,
and uses the low order byte of the hash
as an index into the array pathash[],
to find a chain of patterns in the array
pattern[],
that are all tried for a match.
.PP
The function trypat() does most of the work
checking patterns.
When a pattern is found to match all instructions
the operands of the instruction are placed into the dollar[] array.
Then the boolean expression is tried.
If it matches the function can return,
leaving the operands still in the dollar[] array,
so later in the code rule they can still be used.
.NH 3
reg.c
.PP
Collection of routines to handle registers.
Reference count routines are here,
chrefcount() and getrefcount(),
plus routines to erase a single register or all of them,
erasereg() and cleanregs().
.PP
If NDEBUG hasn't been defined, here is also the routine that checks
if the reference count kept with the register information is in
agreement with the number of times it occurs on the fake stack.
.NH 3
salloc.c
.PP
Module for string allocation and garbage collection.
Contains entry points myalloc(),
a routine calling malloc() and checking whether room is left,
myfree(), just free(),
popstr() a function called from state.c to free all strings
made since the last saved status.
Furthermore there is salloc() which has the size of the string as parameter
and returns a pointer to the allocated space,
while keeping a copy of the pointer for garbage allocation purposes.
.PP
The function garbage_collect is called from codegen() at toplevel
every now and then,
and checks all places where strings may reside to mark strings
as being in use.
Strings not in use are returned to the pool of free space.
.NH 3
state.c
.PP
Set of routines called to save current status and
restore a previous saved state.
.NH 3
subr.c
.PP
Random set of leftover routines.
.NH 4
match
.PP
Computes whether a certain token matches a certain token expression.
Just computes a bitnumber according to the algorithm explained with
machsets[],
and tests the bit and the boolean expression if it is there.
.NH 4
instance,cinstance
.PP
These two functions compute a token from a description.
They differ very slight, cinstance() is used to compute
the result of a coercion in a certain context
and therefore has more arguments, which it uses instead of
the global information instance() works on.
.NH 4
eqtoken
.PP
eqtoken computes whether two tokens can be considered identical.
Used to check register contents during moves mainly.
.NH 4
distance
.PP
This is the heuristic function that computes a distance from
the current fake stack contents to the token pattern in the table.
It likes exact matches most, then matches where at least the sizes are correct
and if the sizes are not correct it likes too large sizes more than too
small, since splitting a token is easier than combining one.
.NH 4
split
.PP
This function tries to find a splitting coercion
and executes it immediately when found.
The fake stack is shuffled thoroughly when this happens,
so pieces below the token that must be split are saved first.
.NH 4
docoerc
.PP
This function executes a coercion that was found.
The same shuffling is done, so the top of the stack is again saved.
.NH 4
stackupto
.PP
This function gets a pointer into the fake stack and must stack
every token including the one pointed at up to the bottom of the fake stack.
The first stacking rule possible is used,
so rules using registers must come first.
.NH 4
findcoerc
.PP
Looks for a one to one coercion, if found it returns a pointer
to it and leaves a list of possible registers to use in the global
variable curreglist.
This is used by codegen().
.NH 3
var.c
.PP
Global variables used by more than one module.
External definitions are in extern.h.